Collaboration among government agencies with special reference to New Zealand: a literature review.

• Author: Majumdar, Debiprosad

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to critically evaluate the literature, from both New Zealand and overseas, on collaboration across government agencies. Collaboration does not simply mean putting people together and expecting a better result. Collaboration is about structuring an arrangement for the joint provision of outputs and outcomes, and has substantial policy implications. The aim here is to provide a comprehensive overview that builds knowledge about the issues associated with collaboration as a service delivery strategy.

INTRODUCTION

The growing focus by governments on the provision of social services for individuals, families and community groups has increased research and policy interest in interagency collaboration. For the purpose of this paper, "collaboration" denotes government agencies (also referred to as "participating organisations" or "parties", "partners" or "stakeholders") working across sectoral boundaries to achieve common goals. While the present review is not focused on collaboration between funders and service providers, existing literature suggests that most, if not all, of the basic issues apply similarly.

The aim of this article is to critically assess the international literature on the policy implications of collaboration as a service delivery strategy. The following research questions that guided this review looked at collaboration in general, but with a particular focus on their application in a New Zealand context:

1. Collaboration in general

   --What is meant by collaboration?

   --What are the basic features of collaboration?

   --What are the conditions for the success of collaboration?

   --What are the barriers to collaboration?

   --What are the mechanisms for achieving, preserving and enhancing collaboration?

2. Collaboration in New Zealand

   --What has been the impact of collaboration as a service delivery strategy in New Zealand?

   --What are the conditions required to facilitate collaboration in New Zealand?

   --What impedes collaboration in New Zealand?

   --What could be done to overcome the obstacles to collaboration in New Zealand?

   COLLABORATION IN GENERAL

   Definition and Scope of Collaboration

   Collaboration is a service-related concept, focusing principally on service delivery to individuals, families and community groups. There is substantial literature on collaboration.

   Collaboration according to Bardach (1998:8) involves "joint activity by ... agencies that is intended to increase public value by their working together". Bardach, however, acknowledges that the nature of joint activity can be varied and that determining what constitutes public value is subjective.

   Mattessich et al. (2001) define collaboration as a mutually beneficial and well-defined relationship entered into by two or more organisations with a commitment to a set of common goals, a jointly developed structure and shared responsibility, and mutual authority and accountability. They maintain that relationships based on trust and a shared vision potentially enhance the ability of the parties to achieve qualitatively better outcomes.

   According to Gray (1989), collaboration is a process through which stakeholders, who may see problems differently, can explore their differences and search for constructive and mutually beneficial solutions that might not otherwise have been found. Better-quality outcomes may result from this more comprehensive analysis of issues and opportunities.

   Melaville et al. (1993) look at collaboration as a series of interrelated activities undertaken by partners to address shared problems and achieve common goals. They present a five-stage process of collaboration involving getting together, building trust, developing a strategic plan, taking action and "going to scale" (i.e. implementing service delivery strategies).

   Several writers have expressed similar views about the basic features of collaboration. According to Gray (1989), it is characterised by interdependence and participative decision making. Sussman (2000) regards mutually agreed outcomes and a willingness to share resources such as ideas, time and technical support as critical to successful collaboration. In the 1970s, the Department of Health and Social Security in Britain (DHSS 1973) saw joint planning as a method of improving collaboration. O'Looney (1997) and Wilson (2000) agree on the ultimate objective of collaboration: In the words of O'Looney, "collaboration refers to partnership formation that is believed to bring about change" (O'Looney 1997:32), while Wilson considers collaboration to be the most effective tool to "create something entirely new" (Wilson 2000:3).

   Prefontaine et al. (2000) look at collaboration from a structural perspective. They state that collaboration can be "public-public", i.e. between two or more government agencies, or "public-private", i.e. between government agencies and private firms/non-profit organisations. They suggest that collaboration between government agencies may be "horizontal", which refers to agreements between two or more government agencies at the same level of government, or "vertical", which denotes intergovernmental alliances between local, state and national administrations. Finally, they believe that one of the salient features of collaboration is the existence of a formal written agreement for a definite term. This contrasts with Gray (2002), who sees collaboration as voluntary and rarely based on contractual agreements.

   Collaboration is a broad concept in scope. The literature also suggests that it is a mixed bag of pluses and minuses. Some (McLaughlin and Covert 1984, Gray 2002) assert that, as a delivery mechanism, collaboration is able to enhance the quantity, quality, accessibility and cost effectiveness of services, and reduce gaps and overlaps in the provision of outputs. Others (Whetten 1981, Mattessich et al. 2001) argue that collaboration may decrease the adaptive capacity of the network as a whole unless there is a high degree of trust between partners, and could sometimes result in greater costs than independent efforts. Bardach believes that collaboration can be appreciated only "if it produces better organisatonal performance or lower costs" (1998:17).

   It appears from the literature that an important factor in collaboration is the interdependence among participating organisations that choose to combine their efforts to achieve better outcomes. Initially, the extent of this interdependence may not be fully appreciated by participating organisations. Heightening awareness about their interdependence (in terms of common outcomes or clients) from the start has the potential to kindle a willingness to search for mutually involving and beneficial solutions. It seems that, where participating organisations realise the value of interdependence and recognise the potential advantages of working together, there is limited need for formalised agreement.

   There is also consensus in the literature that a commitment on the part of participating organisations to mutual understanding, respect and trust is the key element of effective collaboration. Participating organisations with people who spend the time needed to understand and respect the values, priorities, policies and working constraints of one another will build a climate of trust, particularly in relation to being honest and open about their agendas, service needs and resources.

   Conditions for the Success of Collaboration

   There is no clearly observable pattern to the descriptions of collaboration in the literature. However, it is possible to discern a range of conditions that improve the likelihood of successful collaboration.

   Mattessich et al. (2001) specify a list of 20 factors necessary for successful collaboration. Of these, mutual understanding and respect, informal and personal relationships, open and frequent communication, shared vision, concrete and attainable goals, flexibility and adaptability, and a favourable political and social climate are of particular importance.

   According to Gray (1989), certain specific measures need to be undertaken if successful collaboration is to be achieved. These include organising a set of stakeholders to address common problems, accommodating differing organisational interests, enabling participating organisations to collectively negotiate agreements, and acting as a vehicle of action learning that helps to tackle changes in environments.

   In the opinion of Prefontaine et al. (2000), successful collaboration presupposes the existence of two crucial factors: compliance with government interests, and complementarity of parties in terms of resources and expertise. Gray (2002) identifies a set of principles that underpin successful collaboration, including: understanding the roles and responsibilities, and appreciating the values and skills, of each other; sharing a common language; recognising legal obligations and...