Jail mums: the status of adult female prisoners among young female prisoners in Christchurch women's prison.

AuthorGoldingay, Sophie

Abstract

At present in Aotearoa New Zealand, young female prisoners aged 14-19 years are either mixed with adult prisoners, or kept separate from them within the mainstream environment. Due to the practical difficulties of keeping young women separate in this environment, they may have few opportunities for participating in rehabilitative and therapeutic programmes or education, and may face extended lock-up hours. Young male prisoners aged 14-17 are treated differently: for example, they are placed in Young Offender Units, where they are provided with age-appropriate services and interventions. The differences in treatment available to young men and young women have been explained in the past by anecdotal practice wisdom around the mother-daughter nature of the relationships between adult women prisoners and young women prisoners. The current study explores the social context within a women's prison, through in-depth interviews, in order to learn more about the nature of the relationships between adult and young women prisoners. While these are only preliminary observations based on a small number of participants, it appears that in Christchurch Women's Prison a culture of respect for older women may exist among the young women prisoners. Participants indicated that for a number of reasons ongoing close relationships with adults are essential for their wellbeing.

INTRODUCTION

The nature of the relationships between adult women prisoners and their youthful counterparts in New Zealand is to a large extent unknown. Some previous anecdotal speculation by New Zealand authorities suggests that adult prisoners mother and befriend younger prisoners, keeping them calm (Department of Corrections 1998). In contrast, overseas studies warn that older women prisoners may manipulate, bully and take advantage of young women prisoners (Gaarder and Belknap 2004, Howard League for Penal Reform 1997).

This paper reports preliminary findings of a larger doctoral project in progress, which explores the needs of young female prisoners in Aotearoa New Zealand and what management arrangements might best meet these needs. A qualitative discourse analysis approach is being used in this study to analyse texts from the transcripts of semi-structured interviews with young women prisoners, in order to explore the social context and subjective experience of young women in prison (Lovering 1995). Analysis of the data from the Christchurch cohort suggest that mother-daughter type relationships predominate, and young women prisoners rely on these relationships for their wellbeing. Should this finding extend to young women prisoners in Arohata Women's Prison and Auckland Region Women's Correctional Facility, it may be of interest to policymakers. The author's own social work practice and research background has contributed to this research being guided by a feminist and anti-colonial agenda. Hence, the author seeks to advance the situation of this group of women and consider what is in their best interests.

Why Investigate Relationships between Older and Younger Women Prisoners?

"Best interests" is a phrase used by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC). While the UNCROC guidelines appear to be accepted worldwide, it is my view that there remains a lack of clarity with regard to what constitutes the "best interests" for young women prisoners, particularly in the New Zealand context. New Zealand has been criticised for continuing to mix young female prisoners with adult prisoners (Harre 2001). (2) As a result, collaboration between the Ministry of Youth Development and the Department of Corrections led to a vulnerability assessment tool being produced for young women prisoners called the Test of Best Interests (TBI) (Department of Corrections 2006). This tool is similar to the one used to assess vulnerability among young male prisoners, with some substantive changes, such as an assessment of wellbeing factors, family influence (for location of placement purposes) and gang affiliation (Department of Corrections 2005).

The female TBI is unable to investigate the nature of relationships between adult and young women prisoners, however. Being based largely on the research with young men (Tie and Waugh 2007), it is not able to assess aspects of the social context that may be unique to women's prisons. In the absence of any formal research in New Zealand, it is unclear if there are any social factors unique to women's prisons, especially with regards to age mixing. There are two mixed-gender studies regarding age mixing in prisons conducted in New Zealand to date (see Gray Matter Research Ltd 1996, Action for Children and Youth Aotearoa 2003), but gender differences in social context are not able to be extracted from these studies.

Three overseas studies have investigated age mixing and the nature of the relationships between young and adult women in prison (see Gaarder and Belknap 2004, Genders and Player 1986, Howard League for Penal Reform 1997). However, these international studies are not homogeneous in methodological approach: two adopt a qualitative methodology and the other a quantitative methodology. This diversity may explain the divergence in findings among them regarding the nature of the relationships between young and adult women prisoners. They each conclude, however, that older women prisoners have very little positive influence, respect or control in relation to younger prisoners. It appears that these studies, combined with pressure to conform to UNCROC guidelines, have led to separate youth facilities being established for female prisoners in a number of jurisdictions overseas.

The Social Environment in a Women's Prison

Prison psychologists conducting research with male youths in prison in New Zealand have observed that should prison be a harsh and dangerous place for prisoners, such an experience may "diminish the deterrent effect of imprisonment ... lead to further criminal behaviour ... and interfere with a prisoner's ability to successfully undertake programmes offered to reduce their likelihood of reoffending" (Tie and Waugh 2007:2).

Therefore, central to this investigation is consideration of whether age mixing does indeed make prison a harsher and more dangerous place for young women, in the same way as research has indicated that it does for young male prisoners. It is possible, as suggested by the anecdotal evidence mentioned above, that age mixing is a protective factor that may lessen some aspects of the negative impact of incarceration for young female prisoners. (3) Therefore, this study aims to investigate whether young women prisoners are better off with age mixing or by serving their sentence separated from adults.

In New Zealand there are very few young female prisoners (Dierck and Tyro 2004). Census data showed 29 in 1999, 26 in 2003, and a more recent report, from the Department of Corrections Policy Development Unit (2007), counted 35 sentenced female prisoners aged 14-19 years held in custody as of March 2007. As such, young female prisoners are particularly voiceless and marginalised (Adler and Hunter 1999 cited in Redman and Fisher 2002, Gaarder and Belknap 2004). This marginalisation is a concern, especially as these young women incarcerated today are likely to become mothers of another generation. Those who conduct research with female prisoners in Australia have observed, "positive and effective interventions could have significant intergenerational outcomes given the very high proportion of women offenders who are mothers or carers of children" (Salamone 2004:5).

Deciding how to develop positive and effective interventions and management arrangements for young female prisoners is not a simple matter. There are competing discourses around definitions of what is "positive" and "effective" in prison, as evident in policy documents, in the media, and among different professional groups. Interestingly, few interventions or management arrangements have been planned as a result of seeking prisoners' perspectives, and it has been hypothesised that this may be a contributing factor to the successive and pervasive failure of prison interventions (Pratt 1999).

From this I conclude that it is important to study the complexities of the prison experience from the young women prisoners' perspective. Understanding prisoners" perspectives and the social context within a women's prison environment may help policymakers to make more effective decisions regarding mixing young women with adults. In doing this, policy decisions may also influence the wellbeing of women prisoners, ensuring the environment is conducive to addressing their offending. Such decisions may lead to more positive outcomes for the young women themselves, any existing children they may have, and those who may be born to them in the future.

APPROACH ADOPTED FOR THE STUDY

This investigation adopts a qualitative discourse analysis approach. It investigates the ways the issue of mixing with adults is talked about among young female prisoners, and what such talk reveals about the nature of relationships between young and older female prisoners. I have chosen this approach because I seek primarily to understand the social context in which the young women speak, and I am not investigating their cognitions or motivations (Lea and Auburn 2001). The study draws on both discursive psychology and Foucaultian traditions of discourse analysis. For a more in-depth explanation of the different intellectual traditions that underpin these two versions of discourse analysis, see Willig (2001:90-91).

While I am analysing the young women's responses, a discourse analysis approach enables me to interpret participants' dialogue through a feminist and anti-colonial lens, and hence adopt a "standpoint" (Hundleby 1997). For more details about this technique see Lea and Auburn (2001), or Willott and Griffin (1997). In addition, a...

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