Designer amphetamines in New Zealand: policy challenges and initiatives.

• Author: Wilkins, Chris

Abstract

There has been a rapid increase in the use and manufacture of powerful amphetamine-type substances (ATS) such as methamphetamine and ecstasy in New Zealand in recent years. The use of ATS has been linked to increases in cases of drug psychosis, violent crime and robbery. The rapid spread of these synthetic designer drugs has highlighted a number of gaps in current legislation, agency response and research capacity. This paper discusses these issues and problems, and recommends a number of policy initiatives related to the classification of amphetamines in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the classification of drug analogues, quantities required for presumption of supply, powers of search, penalties for amphetamine manufacture, chemical precursor control, the clean-up of contaminated clandestine manufacture sites, statistics maintained on ATS seizures, and the study of drug use and harms, including mental illness and incidents of violence.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years New Zealand has experienced a rapid increase in the use and manufacture of amphetamine-type substances (ATS), such as methamphetamine and ecstasy (Wilkins et al. 2002, New Zealand Police 2002, Horne 1997). Statistics released by the Police and Customs halfway through this year suggest ATS continues to be a growing problem. By the end of July Customs reported that they had already seized double the amount of ecstasy that was seized during the whole of last year (161,000 tablets as of 30/7/2002 compared to 73,000 tablets for 2001) (NZPA 2002b). By the end of August the police had detected nearly double the number of clandestine drug laboratories producing amphetamines compared to last year (70 labs by 30/8/2002 compared to 41 labs in 2001) (www.police.govt.nz/news). Non-cannabis related drug offences, which include ATS offences, increased by 34% over the previous year (2,708 offences in 2001/2002 compared to 2,024 offences in 2000/2001) (www.police.govt.nz/ news).

Several government agencies have linked the increased use of ATS with increases in social and public health problems. The Ministry of Health recently released figures showing that hospital admissions for drug-induced psychosis had more than doubled in the 1990s, and a spokesperson for the National Treatment Forum implicated the increasing use of methamphetamine and ecstasy as a contributor to this trend (Martin 2002). The Police Commissioner, Rob Robinson, has speculated that the 5.9% increase in violent crime last year may be linked to the growing use and manufacture of methamphetamine (Stevens 2002, Philp 2002). The police have reported attending numerous incidents involving violence, including several homicides, where methamphetamine was a factor, either directly through use by an offender, or indirectly via the trade in the drug, such as where violence was used to collect debts from defaulting users (New Zealand Police 2002). The police have also implicated methamphetamine use in the recent increase in robberies, speculating that users are forced to commit street crimes to finance their drug use (www.police.govt.nz).

The spread of designer amphetamines and the emergence of domestic manufacture in New Zealand have highlighted a number of gaps in current legislation and several areas where agency response could be improved. This paper presents an overview of the ATS situation in New Zealand, identifies some of the emerging problems and issues, and discusses several policy initiatives that could be adopted to improve the control and minimise the harm of these substances. A central focus of the article is to explain how synthetic designer drugs, such as amphetamines, differ from the traditional plant-based drugs, such as cocaine, marijuana and heroin, and to examine the implications for policy.

AMPHETAMINE-TYPE SUBSTANCES: RISKS AND HARMS

Amphetamine-Type Substances (ATS) is a general term that refers to amphetamine derivatives such as methamphetamine and crystal methamphetamine, and amphetamine analogues such as ecstasy.

Methamphetamine

Commonly known as "speed" or "meth", methamphetamine is a powerful psychostimulant with characteristics and effects that more closely resemble cocaine (onset is slower and duration is longer) than the amphetamine sulphates that were commonly encountered in the 1970s, which were largely diet pills and prescription drugs (see United Nations Drug Control Programme 2001, Kuhn et al. 1998, Horne 1997, Gawin and Ellinwood 1988, Hall and Hando 1994, Shearer et al. 2002). It can be snorted, injected, smoked or taken orally. Immediate effects include euphoria, increased energy and confidence, decreased appetite, and these effects can last for 4 to 12 hours depending on dosage. High doses cause irritability, hostility, paranoia, hallucinations and violent behaviour.

Users sometimes go on binges where they use the drug continuously over several days without sleep. As a binge lengthens the user experiences states of panic and terror, and fear of impending death, which can lead to paranoid psychoses resembling schizophrenia in people with no pre-existing psychological condition. Binges end in a "crash", characterised by deep depression, fatigue, insomnia, headaches, and a strong psychological craving to use the drug again.

Dependence potential is high and relapse common. Physiological harm includes damage to cardiac and vascular systems, and damage to dopamine terminals in the brain, with possible implications for mood and movement disorder in latter life.

Crystal Methamphetamine

Commonly known as "ice" or "crystal", this crystallised form of methamphetamine has effects similar to crack cocaine. Like crack, the crystallised form increases the speed the drug is absorbed, and the intensity and duration of the effects (Kuhn et al. 1998, Matsumoto et al. 2002). It is usually smoked.

MDMA, MDA, MDEA

MDMA, MDA and MDEA (commonly known as "ecstasy", "X", "Adam" or "Eve") have both amphetamine properties and hallucinogenic characteristics like LSD (Kuhn et al. 1998, Gowing et al. 2001, Gowing et al. 2002, Topp et al. 1998). These drugs increase heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature, and produce a sense of energy and alertness (like standard amphetamines), but also produce a warm state of empathy and good feelings for others (due to increased release of serotonin). They can be taken orally, snorted and injected. High doses cause teeth clenching, paranoia, anxiety and confusion. Tolerance to MDMA develops rapidly, and this has been associated with self-limiting patterns of use (periods of voluntary abstinence), although more-recent studies show evidence of injecting and larger doses in an attempt to overcome short-term tolerance (Topp et al. 1998).

MDMA can cause hyperthermia (heat stroke) resulting in death when combined with physical exercise or elevated temperatures, such as occur in many dance clubs (these environments compound a pharmacological effect of ecstasy on the body's thermoregulatory mechanism) (Topp et al. 1998). Ecstasy also inhibits the body's ability to excrete fluid and can cause a thirst sensation, which has led to water intoxication and death when an excessive amount of fluid is consumed (possibly due to an exaggerated response to education messages to consume water to avoid heat stroke (Topp et al. 1998, Gowing et al. 2002). Although cases of serious adverse effects appear low relative to the extent of use, it is the unpredictability of adverse events (dose is not predictive of adverse effects) and risk of mortality that make the risks significant (Gowing et al. 2002). Three people have died as a result of taking ecstasy in New Zealand since 1998 (Stevens 2002).

Long-term effects include insomnia, energy loss, depression, irritability, muscle aches and blurred vision. Ecstasy has also been controversially linked to damage to serotonin terminals in the brain, with possible implications for short-term memory, cognitive function and mood regulation. Results are confounded by small numbers of participants, uncertain histories of MDMA use, use of other drugs such as cannabis, and pre-existing personality differences (Gowing et al. 2002)...